Nero:
At the moment I am working on Nero and it is very interesting! Here is a bit ( not much) of research I have done:
Nero (Latin: Nero
Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus 15 December 37 – 9 June
68) was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last
in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his
great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor, and succeeded
to the throne in 54 following Claudius' death. During his reign, Nero focused
much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and enhancing the cultural life of
the Empire. He ordered theaters built and promoted athletic games. During his
reign, the redoubtable general Corbulo conducted
a successful war and negotiated peace
with the Parthian Empire. His general Suetonius Paulinus crushed a revolt in Britain and also annexed the Bosporan Kingdom to
the Empire, beginning the First Roman–Jewish War.
In 64, most of Rome was
destroyed in the Great Fire of Rome, which many Romans believed
Nero himself had started in order to clear land for his planned palatial complex,
the Domus Aurea.
In 68, the rebellion of Vindex in Gaul and
later the acclamation of Galba in Hispania drove Nero from the throne. Facing
assassination, he committed suicide on 9 June 68 (the first Roman emperor to do
so). His death ended the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, sparking a brief period
of civil wars known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Nero's rule is
often associated with tyranny and extravagance. He is known for many
executions, including those of his mother and the probable murder by
poison of his stepbrother, Britannicus.
He is infamously known
as the Emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" (although this is now
considered an inaccurate rumor) and as an early persecutor of Christians.
He was known for having captured Christians burned in his garden at night for a
source of light. This view is based on the writings of Tacitus, Suetonius,
and Cassius Dio,
the main surviving sources for Nero's reign. Few surviving sources paint Nero
in a favorable light.[7] Some
sources, though, including some mentioned above, portray him as an emperor who
was popular with the common Roman people; especially in the East. The study of
Nero is problematic as some modern historians question the reliability of
ancient sources when reporting on Nero's tyrannical acts.[9]
Family:
Lucius
Domitius Ahenobarbus,
the future Nero, was born on 15 December 37 in Antium, near Rome. He
was the only son ofGnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, sister of Emperor Caligula.
Nero's father Gnaeus was
the son of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul
16 BC) and Antonia Major. Gnaeus was thus the grandson
of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul
32 BC) and probably Aemilia Lepida on his father's side, and
the grandson of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor on
his mother's side. Thus, Nero had as his paternal grandmother Antonia Maior,
and also claimed more remote descent from Antonia Minor as
a great-grandson—later grandson after Claudius adopted him. Through Octavia,
Nero was the grandnephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as
a praetor and
was a member of Caligula's staff when the latter traveled to the East (some
apparently think Suetonius refers to Augustus' adopted son Gaius Caesar here,
but this is not likely). Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer
and a cheat who was charged by Emperor Tiberius with
treason, adultery, and incest.[12] Tiberius
died, allowing him to escape these charges. Nero's father died of edema ("dropsy")
in 39 when Nero was two.[12]
Nero's mother was
Agrippina the Younger, a great-granddaughter of Caesar Augustus and
his wife Scribonia through
their daughterJulia the Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Agrippina's
father, Germanicus, was a grandson of Augustus's wife, Livia, on one side and
to Mark Antony and
Octavia on the other. Germanicus' mother Antonia Minor,
was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus' elder
sister. Germanicus was also the adopted son of Tiberius.
Agrippina poisoned her second husband Passienus Crispus, so many ancient
historians also accuse her of murdering her third husband, the emperor
Claudius.[13]
Rise
to power
Nero was not expected to
become Emperor because his maternal uncle, Caligula,
had begun his reign at the age of 25 with enough time to produce his own heir.
Nero's mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after
her husband's death. Caligula seized Nero's inheritance and sent him to be
raised by his less wealthy aunt, Domitia Lepida,
who was the mother of Valeria
Messalina, Claudius's third wife.
Caligula, his wife Caesonia and
their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were
murdered on 24 January 41.[15] These
events led Claudius,
Caligula's uncle, to become emperor.[16] Claudius
allowed Agrippina to return from exile.
Claudius had married
twice before marrying Valeria
Messalina.[17] His
previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at
a young age. He had two children with Messalina – Claudia Octavia (b.
40) and Britannicus (b. 41).
Messalina was executed by Claudius in the year 48.[17] In
49, Claudius married a fourth time, to Nero's mother Agrippina.[18] To
aid Claudius politically, young Nero was adopted in 50 and took the name Nero
Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus .Nero was older than his stepbrother
Britannicus, and thus became heir to the throne.
Nero was proclaimed an
adult in 51 at the age of 14. He was appointed proconsul,
entered and first addressed the Senate,
made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage.[21] In
53, he married his stepsister Claudia Octavia.[22]
Emperor
Early
rule
Claudius died
in 54 and Nero, taking the name Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus
Germanicus, was established as Emperor. Though accounts vary, many ancient
historians state Agrippina poisoned
Claudius. According to Pliny the Elder,
she used poison mushrooms. It is
not known how much Nero knew or if he was even involved in the death of Claudius.
Suetonius wrote
"...for even if he was not the instigator of the emperor's death, he was
at least privy to it, as he openly admitted; for he used afterwards to laud
mushrooms, the vehicle in which the poison was administered to Claudius, as
"the food of the gods," as the Greek proverb has it. At any rate,
after Claudius's death he vented on him every kind of insult, in act and word,
charging him now with folly and now with cruelty; for it was a favourite joke
of his to say that Claudius had ceased "to play the fool among mortals,
lengthening the first syllable of the word morari, and he disregarded many of
his decrees and acts as the work of a madman and a dotard. Finally, he
neglected to enclose the place where his body was burned except with a low and
mean wall."
Nero became Emperor at
17 when the news of Claudius' death was made known, the youngest emperor
until that time. Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being
strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the Praetorian
Prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, especially in the first
year. Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as Alexander of Aegae.
Very early in Nero's
rule, problems arose from competition for influence between Agrippina and
Nero's two main advisers, Seneca and Burrus.
In 54, Agrippina tried
to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca
stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene (as it was unimaginable at
that time for a woman to be in the same room as men doing official business).
Nero's friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his
mother. Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to Octavia and
entered into an affair with Claudia Acte,
a former slave. In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of
Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of
Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs.
With Agrippina's
influence over her son severed, she reportedly began pushing for Britannicus,
Nero's stepbrother, to become emperor.
Nearly fifteen-year-old Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero's
adoption, was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood. According
to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being the blood
son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over
Nero. However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on 12 February 55, the
very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set. Nero claimed
that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient historians all
claim Britannicus' death came from Nero's poisoning him. Supposedly, he enlisted
the services of Locusta, a woman who specialized in the manufacture of poisons.
She devised a mixture to kill Britannicus, but after testing it unsuccessfully
on a slave, Nero angrily threatened to have her put to death if she did not
come up with something usable. Locusta then devised a new concoction that she
promised would "kill swifter than a viper." Her promise was fulfilled
after Britannicus consumed it at a dinner party from water used to cool his
wine, which had already been tasted, and succumbed within minutes. After the
death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and Nero
ordered her out of the imperial residence.
Matricide
and consolidation of power
Over time, Nero became
progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his advisers and eliminating
rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed Marcus Antonius
Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the
treasury. Pallas, along with Burrus, was accused of conspiring against the Emperor to
bring Faustus Sulla to the throne. Seneca was accused of having relations
with Agrippina and embezzlement. Seneca succeeded in having himself, Pallas and
Burrus acquitted. According to Cassius Dio,
at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful
management to mere moderation of Nero.
In 58, Nero became
romantically involved with Poppaea Sabina,
the wife of his friend and future emperor Otho. Reportedly because a
marriage to Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically
feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59. A number
of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry Poppaea
until 62 . Additionally, according to Suetonius,
Poppaea did not divorce her husband until after Agrippina's death, making it
unlikely that the already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage. Some
modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was prompted by
her plotting to set Rubellius
Plautus on the throne. According to Suetonius,
Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, which took the life
of her friend, Acerronia Polla, but when Agrippina survived,
he had her executed and framed it as a suicide. The incident is also recorded
by Tacitus.[
In 62, Nero's
adviser, Burrus,
died. Additionally, Seneca was again faced with embezzlement charges. Seneca
asked Nero for permission to retire from public affairs. Nero divorced and
banished Octavia on grounds of infertility, leaving
him free to marry the pregnant Poppaea. After public protests, Nero was
forced to allow Octavia to return from exile, but she was executed shortly
after her return.[52] Nero
also was reported to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65 before she could have
his second child. However, modern historians, noting Suetonius, Tacitus and
Cassius Dio's possible bias against Nero and the likelihood that they did not
have eyewitness accounts of private events, postulate that Poppaea may have
died because of complications of miscarriage or childbirth.
Accusations of treason
being plotted against Nero and the Senate first appeared in 62. The Senate
ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to death for speaking ill of
Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of Fabricius Veiento who
slandered the Senate in a book. Tacitus writes that the roots of the
conspiracy led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso began in this year.
To consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including
his rivals Pallas, Rubellius
Plautus andFaustus Sulla. According to Suetonius,
Nero "showed neither discrimination nor moderation in putting to death
whomsoever he pleased" during this period.
Nero's consolidation of
power also included a slow usurping of authority from the Senate. In 54, Nero
promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those under Republican rule.] By
65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy.
Administrative
policies
Over the course of his
reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower class. Nero was
criticized as being obsessed with being popular.
Nero began his reign in
54 by promising the Senate more autonomy. In this first year, he forbade
others to refer to him with regard to enactments, for which he was praised by
the Senate. Nero was known for spending his time visiting brothels and taverns
during this period.
In 55, Nero began taking
on a more active role as an administrator. He was consul four
times between 55 and 60. During this period, some ancient historians speak
fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule.
Under Nero, restrictions
were put on the amount of bail and fines. Also, fees for lawyers were limited.There
was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct of the freedmen class, and a
strong demand was made that patrons should have the right of revoking freedom. Nero
supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right. The
Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all
slaves within a household. Despite riots from the people, Nero supported the
Senate on their measure, and deployed troops to organise the execution of 400
slaves affected by the law. However, he vetoed strong measures against the
freedmen affected by the case. After tax collectors were accused of being too
harsh to the poor, Nero transferred collection authority to lower
commissioners. Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public
entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to sway the
populace. Additionally, there were many impeachments and removals of
government officials along with arrests for extortion and corruption. When
further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero attempted
to repeal all indirect taxes. The Senate convinced him this action would
bankrupt the public treasury. As a compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to
2.5% additionally; secret government tax records were ordered to become public.
To lower the cost of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.
In imitation of the
Greeks, Nero built a number of gymnasiums and theatres. Enormous
gladiatorial shows were also held. Nero also established the quinquennial Neronia. The festival included
games, poetry, and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that
theatre led to immorality. Others considered that to have performers
dressed in Greek clothing was old fashioned. Some questioned the large public
expenditure on entertainment
In 64, Rome burned. Nero enacted a public relief
effortas well as significant reconstruction. A number of other major
construction projects occurred in Nero's late reign. Nero had the marshes of
Ostia filled with rubble from the fire. He erected the large Domus Aurea. In
67, Nero attempted to have a canal dug at the Isthmus of Corinth. Ancient historians
state that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State's
budget.
Between 62 and 67,
according to Plinius the Elder and Seneca, Nero
promoted an expedition to
discover the sources of the Nile River.
It was the first exploration of equatorial Africa from Europe
in history. However, Nero's expedition up the Nile failed because water plants
had clogged the river, denying Nero's vessels access to the Sudd of Nubia.
Great Fire of Rome
The Great Fire of Rome
erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July 64. The fire started at the
southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in
shops selling flammable goods.
The extent of the fire
is uncertain. According to Tacitus, who was nine at the time of the fire, it spread
quickly and burned for over five days. It destroyed three of fourteen Roman
districts and severely damaged seven. The only other historian who lived
through the period and mentioned the fire is Pliny the Elder,
who wrote about it in passing. Other historians who lived through the period
(including Josephus, Dio Chrysostom,Plutarch,
and Epictetus)
make no mention of it in what remains of their work.
It is uncertain who or
what actually caused the fire — whether accident or arson. Suetonius and Cassius Dio favor
Nero as the arsonist,
so he could build a palatial complex. Tacitus mentions that Christians
confessed to the crime, but it is not known whether these confessions were
induced by torture. However, accidental fires were common in ancient
Rome. In fact, Rome suffered another large fire in 69 and in 80.
It was said by Suetonius
and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium"
in stage costume while the city burned. Popular legend claims that Nero played
the fiddle at
the time of the fire, an anachronism based merely on the concept of the lyre, a stringed
instrument associated with Nero and his performances. (There were no fiddles in
1st-century Rome.) Tacitus's account, however, has Nero in Antium at the
time of the fire. Tacitus also said that Nero playing his lyre and singing
while the city burned was only rumor
According to Tacitus,
upon hearing news of the fire, Nero returned to Rome to organize a relief
effort, which he paid for from his own funds.Nero's contributions to the relief
extended to personally taking part in the search for and rescue of victims of
the blaze, spending days searching the debris without even his bodyguards. After
the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and
arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among
the survivors. In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan.
Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on
wide roads. Nero also built a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in
an area cleared by the fire. This included lush artificial landscapes and a
30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Colossus of Nero.
The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres). To find the
necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were
imposed on the provinces of the empire.
Tacitus notes that
the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors held Nero responsible. To
deflect blame, Nero targeted Christians. He ordered Christians to be thrown to
dogs, while others were crucified and burned.
Public
performances
Nero enjoyed driving a
one-horse chariot, singing to the lyre, and poetry. He even composed songs that
were performed by other entertainers throughout the empire. At first, Nero only
performed for a private audience.[100]
In 64 A.D., Nero began
singing in public in Neapolis in order to improve his popularity. He also sang
at the second quinquennial Neronia in 65. It was
said that Nero craved the attention, but historians also write that Nero was
encouraged to sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle and
the people. Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform,
calling it shameful.
Nero was convinced to
participate in the Olympic Games of 67 in order to improve
relations with Greece and display Roman dominance. As a competitor, Nero raced
a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it. He also
performed as an actor and a singer. Though Nero faltered in his racing (in one
case, dropping out entirely before the end) and acting competitions, he
won these crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome. The
victories are attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor.
War
and peace with Parthia
Shortly after Nero's
accession to the throne in 54, the Roman vassal kingdom of Armenia overthrew
their Iberian prince Rhadamistus and
he was replaced with the Parthian princeTiridates. This was seen as a Parthian
invasion of Roman territory. There was concern in Rome over how the young
Emperor would handle the situation. Nero reacted by immediately sending the
military to the region under the command of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. The Parthians
temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome.The peace did not last and
full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king Vologases I refused to remove his brother
Tiridates from Armenia. The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the
Armenian kingdomCommander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian
army that same year. Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of
Armenia.
Nero was acclaimed in
public for this initial victory. Tigranes, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome,
was installed by Nero as the new ruler of Armenia. Corbulo was appointed
governor of Syria as a reward.
In 62, Tigranes invaded
the Parthian province of Adiabene. Again, Rome and Parthia were at war and this
continued until 63. Parthia began building up for a strike against the Roman
province of Syria. Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but
Nero opted for a peace deal instead. There was anxiety in Rome about
eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit.
The result was a deal
where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by
Emperor Nero. In the future, the king of Armenia was to be a Parthian
prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates was
forced to come to Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display Roman
dominance.
This peace deal of 63
was a considerable victory for Nero politically. Nero became very popular
in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians as well. The peace
between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until Emperor Trajan of
Rome invaded Armenia in 114.
Other
major power struggles and rebellions
The war with Parthia was
not Nero's only major war but he was both criticized and praised for an
aversion to battle.[124] Like many
emperors, Nero faced a number of rebellions and power struggles within the
empire.
British
Revolt of 60–61 (Boudica's Uprising)
In 60, a major rebellion
broke out in the province of Britannia.
While the governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus and his
troops were busy capturing the island of Mona (Anglesey)
from the druids, the tribes of the southeast staged a revolt led by queen Boudica of
the Iceni.
Boudica and her troops destroyed three cities before the army of Paullinus
could return, receive reinforcements, and quell the rebellion in
61. Fearing Paullinus himself would provoke further rebellion, Nero
replaced him with the more passive Publius Petronius Turpilianus.
The
Pisonian Conspiracy of 65
In 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman,
organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and
Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard. According
to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the
emperor and restore the Republic.
The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's
secretary,Epaphroditos. As a result, the conspiracy failed and its
members were executed including Lucan, the poet. Nero's previous
advisor, Seneca was ordered to commit suicide after
admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators.
The
First Jewish War of 66–70
In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek
and Jewish religious tension. In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to
restore order. This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's
death. This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem
and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.
The
revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero
In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex,
the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled against Nero's tax
policies. Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania
Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion. In an attempt
to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba,
the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion
and further, to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero. At
the Battle of Vesontio in
May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter
committed suicide. However, after putting down this one rebel, Verginius'
legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused
to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germany and the
continued opposition of Galba in Spain did not bode well for Nero.
While Nero had retained
some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being
officially declared a public enemy. The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his
allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support for Galba.
In response, Nero fled
Rome with the intention of going to the port of Ostia and,
from there, to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces.
However, he abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey
his commands, responding with a line fromVergil's Aeneid:
"Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the
idea of fleeing to Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or to
appeal to the people and beg them to pardon him for his past offences "and
if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the
prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was
later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of
being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.
Nero returned to Rome
and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight
to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace
chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers
personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a gladiator or
anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried,
"Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself
into the Tiber.[142]
Returning, Nero sought
for some place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial
freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, located 4 miles
outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal freedman, Epaphroditos, Phaon, Neophytus, and Sporus, reached
the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. At this time, a
courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared Nero a public enemy
and that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to death.
At this news, Nero prepared
himself for suicide. Losing his nerve, he first begged for
one of his companions to set an example by first killing himself. At last, the
sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still
could not bring himself to take his own life but instead he forced his private
secretary, Epaphroditos, to perform the task. Nero's famous dying
words were "Qualis artifex pereo," which translates into English as
"What an artist dies in me!"
When one of the horsemen
entered, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he attempted to stop the bleeding in
vain. Nero died on 9 June 68, the anniversary of the death of Octavia, and was
buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the Villa Borghese(Pincian Hill)
area of Rome.
With his death,
the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended. Chaos ensued
in the Year of the Four Emperors.
Historiography
The history of Nero’s
reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were
contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time did exist and were
described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of
Nero.[165] The
original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events.[166] Nonetheless,
these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary
histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.[167] A few of
the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all
wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.[168] There
were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what deeds
Nero was praised.[169]
The bulk of what is
known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio,
who were all of the senatorial class. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their
histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his
history over 150 years after Nero’s death. These sources contradict on a number
of events in Nero’s life including the death ofClaudius,
the death of Agrippina, and the Roman fire of 64, but they
are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.
A handful of other
sources also add a limited and varying perspective on Nero. Few surviving
sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources, though, portray him as a
competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east.[citation needed]
Cassius
Dio
Cassius Dio (c. 155–229)
was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed
the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and
governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius
Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and also
proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.
Books 61–63 of
Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments
of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus,
an 11th-century monk.
Dio
Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120),
a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with
Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule
once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:
Indeed the truth about
this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were
concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all
time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great
majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died
not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was
still alive.[170]
Epictetus
Epictetus (c. 55–135)
was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.
He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but
makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled,
angry, and unhappy man.
Josephus
The historian Josephus (c. 37–100)
accused other historians of slandering Nero. The historian Josephus (c. 37–100),
while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero.
Of other historians, he said:
But I omit any further
discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have
composed the history of Nero; some of which have departed from the truth of
facts out of favor, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of
hatred to him, and the great ill-will which they bore him, have so impudently
raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned.
Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their
writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier
than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred,
since those writers lived a long time after them.[171]
Lucan
Though more of a poet
than historian, Lucanus (c. 39–65) has one of
the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under
Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved
in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed.[172]
Philostratus
Philostratus II
"the Athenian" (c. 172–250) spoke of Nero in the Life of Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5).
Though he has a generally a bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others'
positive reception of Nero in the East.
Pliny
the Elder
The history of Nero
by Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did
not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's Natural
Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an
"enemy of mankind."[173]
Plutarch
Plutarch (c. 46–127)
mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of
Otho. Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not
described as better.
Seneca
the Younger
It is not surprising
that Seneca (c. 4 BEC–65), Nero's
teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero.[174]
Suetonius
Suetonius (c. 69–130)
was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the head of the department of
the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing
biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational
aspects.
Tacitus
The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117)
is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero, despite
being incomplete after the year 66. Tacitus described the rule of the
Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing
writing on them was unbalanced:
The histories of
Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified
through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a
recent hatred.[175]
Tacitus was the son of
a procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He
entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own
admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realizing that this bias may be apparent
to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.[176]
Girolamo
Cardano
In 1562 Cardano
published in Basel his Encomium Neronis in which for the first
time demonstrated that Nero had been one of the best Roman Emperors. Girolamo
Cardano Nero: an Exemplary Life Inkstone publishing, 2012.
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